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Introduction

This section is intended to provide a minimum introduction of the command line in Linux system for handling genomic data. (If you are alreay familiar with Linux commands, it is completely ok to skip this section.)

If you are a beginner with no background in programming, it would be helpful if you could learn some basic commands first before any analysis. In this section, we will introduce the most basic commands which enable you to handle genomic files in the terminal using command lines in a linux system.

For Mac users

This tutorial will probably work with no problems. Just simply open your terminal and follow the tutorial.

For Windows users

You can simply insall WSL to get a linux environment. Please check here for how to install WSL.

Table of Contents

Linux System Introduction

What is Linux?

Term Description
Linux refers to a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel.
Linux kernel a free and open-source Unix-like operating system kernel, which controls the software and hardware of the computer.
Linux distributions refer to operating systems made from a software collection that is based upon the Linux kernel.

Main functions of the Linux kernel

  • System memory management
  • Software process management
  • Hardware device drivers
  • File system management

Some of the most common linux distributions

image

Linux and Linus

Linux is named after Linus Benedict Torvalds, who is a legendary Finnish software engineer who lead the development of the Linux kernel. He also developped the amazing version control software - Git.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

How do we interact with computers?

  • Graphical User Interface (GUI): allows users to interact with computers through graphical icons
  • Character User Interface (CUI): allows users to interact with computers through command lines

GUI and CUI

image

Shell

  • A Shell provided the actual interface for you to interact with the Linux system. When you type commands in a shell, it will collect and execute the commands.
  • $ is the prompt for bash shell, which indicate that you can type commands after the $ sign.
  • Different shells might use other signs for the prompt. For example, the defaul zsh in Mac uses % , and C shell uses > as the prompt sign.
  • There are multiple available shells which differ in their features. For a typical linux system, the default shell is bash.

A general comparison between CUI and GUI

GUI CUI
Interaction Graphics Command line
Precision LOW HIGH
Speed LOW HIGH
Memory required HIGH LOW
Ease of operation Easier DIFFICULT
Flexibility MORE flexible LESS flexible

Tip

The reason why we want to use CUI for large-scale data analysis is that CUI is better in term of precision, memory usage and processing speed.

Overview of the basic commands in Linux

Unlike clicking and dragging files in Windows or MacOS, in Linux, we usually handle files by typing commands in the terminal.

image

Here is a list of the basic commands we are going to cover in this brief tutorial:

Basic Linux commands

Function group Commands Description
Directories pwd, ls, mkdir, rmdir Commands for checking, creating and removing directories
Files touch,cp,mv,rm Commands for creating, copying, moving and removing files
Checking files cat,zcat,head,tail,less,more,wc Commands for inspecting files
Archiving and compression tar,gzip,gunzip,zip,unzip Commands for Archiving and Compressing files
Manipulating text sort,uniq,cut,join,tr Commands for manipulating text files
Modifying permission chmod,chown, chgrp Commands for changing the permissions of files and directories
Links ln Commands for creating symbolic and hard links
Pipe, redirect and others pipe, >,>>,*,.,.. A group of miscellaneous commands
Advance text editing awk, sed Commands for more complicated text manipulation and editing

How to check the usage of a command using man:

The first command we might want to learn is man, which shows the manual for a certain command. When you forget how to use a command, you can always use man to check.

man : Check the manual of a command (e.g., man chmod) or --help option (e.g., chmod --help)

For example, we want to check the usage of pwd:

Use man to get the manual for commands

$ man pwd
Then you will see the manual of pwd in your terminal. 
PWD(1)                                              User     Commands                                              PWD(1)

NAME
       pwd - print name of current/working directory

SYNOPSIS
       pwd [OPTION]...

DESCRIPTION
       Print the full filename of the current working directory.
....

Explain shell

Or you can use this wonderful website to get explanations for your commands.

URL : https://explainshell.com/

image

Commands

Directories

The first set of commands are: pwd , cd , ls, mkdir and rmdir, which are related to directories (like the folders in a Windows system).

pwd

pwd : Print working directory, which means print the path of the current directory (working directory)

Use pwd to print the current directory you are in

$ pwd
/home/he/work/GWASTutorial/02_Linux_basics

This command prints the absolute path.

An example of Linux file system and file paths

image

Type Description Example
Absolute path path starting from root (the orange path) /home/User3/GWASTutorial/02_Linux_basics/README.md
Relative path path starting from the current directory (the blue path) ./GWASTutorial/02_Linux_basics/README.md

Tip: use readlink to obtain the absolute path of a file

To get the absolute path of a file, you can use readlink -f [filename].

$ readlink -f README.md 
/home/he/work/GWASTutorial/02_Linux_basics/README.md

cd

cd: Change the current working directory

Use cd to change directory to 02_Linux_basics and then print the current directory

$ cd 02_Linux_basics
$ pwd
/home/he/work/GWASTutorial/02_Linux_basics

ls :

ls : List the files in the directory

Some frequently used options for ls :

  • -l: in a list-like format
  • -h: convert file size into a human readable format (KB,MB,GB...)
  • -a: list all files (including hidden files, namly those files with a period at the beginning of the filename)

Simply list the files and directories in the current directory

$ ls
README.md  sumstats.txt

List the files and directories with options -lha

$ ls -lha
drwxr-xr-x   4 he  staff   128B Dec 23 14:07 .
drwxr-xr-x  17 he  staff   544B Dec 23 12:13 ..
-rw-r--r--   1 he  staff     0B Oct 17 11:24 README.md
-rw-r--r--   1 he  staff    31M Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt

Tip: use tree to visualize the structure of a directory

You can use tree command to visualize the structure of a directory.

$ tree ./02_Linux_basics/
./02_Linux_basics/
├── README.md
└── sumstats.txt

0 directories, 2 files

mkdir & rmdir :

  • mkdir : Create a new empty directory
  • rmdir: Delete an empty directory

Make a directory and delete it

$ mkdir new_directory
$ ls
new_directory  README.md  sumstats.txt
$ rmdir new_directory/
$ ls
README.md  sumstats.txt

Manipulating files

This set of commands includes: touch, mv , rm and cp

touch

touch command is used to create a new empty file.

Create an empty text file called newfile.txt in this directory

$ ls -l
total 64048
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff         0 Oct 17 11:24 README.md
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff  32790417 Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt

touch newfile.txt

$ touch newfile.txt
$ ls -l
total 64048
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff         0 Oct 17 11:24 README.md
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff         0 Dec 23 14:14 newfile.txt
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff  32790417 Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt

mv

mv has two functions:

  • (1) move files to another paths
  • (2) rename files

The following command will create a new directoru called new_directory, and move sumstats.txt into that directory. Just like draggig a file in to a folder in window system.

Move a file to a different directory

# make a new directory
$ mkdir new_directory

#move sumstats to the new directory
$ mv sumstats.txt new_directory/

# list the item in new_directory
$ ls new_directory/
sumstats.txt

Now, let's move it back to the current directory and rename it to sumstats_new.txt.

Rename a file using mv

$ mv ./new_directory/sumstats.txt ./
Note: ./ means the current directory You can also use mv to rename a file: 
#rename
$mv sumstats.txt sumstats_new.txt

rm

rm : Remove files or diretories

Remove a file and a directory

# remove a file
$rm file

#remove files in a directory (recursive mode)
$rm -r directory/

There is no trash can in Linux command-line interface

If you delete a file with rm , it will be very difficult to restore it. Please be careful wehn using rm.

cp

cp command is used to copy files or diretories.

Copy a file and a directory

#cp files
$cp file1 file2

# copy directory
$cp -r directory1/ directory2/

Symbolic link is like a shortcut on window system, which is a special type of file that points to another file.

It is very useful when you want to organize your tool box or working space.

You can use ln -s pathA pathB to create such a link.

Create a symbolic link for plink

Let`s create a symbolic link for plink first. 

# /home/he/tools/plink/plink is the orinial file
# /home/he/tools/bin is the path for the symbolic link 
ln -s /home/he/tools/plink/plink /home/he/tools/bin

And then check the link.

cd /home/he/tools/bin
ls -lha
lrwxr-xr-x  1 he  staff    27B Aug 30 11:30 plink -> /home/he/tools/plink/plink

Archiving and Compression

Results for millions of variants are usually very large, sometimes >10GB, or consists of multiple files.

To save space and make it easier to transfer, we need to archive and compress these files.

  • Archiving: combine multiple files in a single file.
  • Compression: make the file size smaller without losing any infomation by convertying the file to binary forms.

Archiving and Compression

image

Commoly used commands for archiving and compression:

Extensions Create Extract Functions
file.gz gzip gunzip compress
files.tar tar -cvf tar -xvf archive
files.tar.gz or files.tgz tar -czvf tar -xvzf archive and compress
file.zip zip unzip archive and compress

Compress and decompress a file using gzip and gunzip

$ ls -lh
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff    31M Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt

$ gzip sumstats.txt
$ ls -lh
-rw-r--r--  1 he  staff   9.9M Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt.gz

$ gunzip sumstats.txt.gz
$ ls -lh
-rw-r--r--   1 he  staff    31M Dec 23 14:07 sumstats.txt

Read and check files

We have a group of handy commands to check part of or the entire file, including cat, zcat, less, head, tail, wc

cat

cat command can print the contents of files or concatenate the files.

Create and then cat the file a_text_file.txt 

$ ls -lha > a_text_file.txt
$ cat a_text_file.txt 
total 32M
drwxr-x---  2 he staff 4.0K Apr  2 00:37 .
drwxr-x--- 29 he staff 4.0K Apr  1 22:20 ..
-rw-r-----  1 he staff    0 Apr  2 00:37 a_text_file.txt
-rw-r-----  1 he staff 5.0K Apr  1 22:20 README.md
-rw-r-----  1 he staff  32M Mar 30 18:17 sumstats.txt

Warning

Be careful not to cat a text file with a huge number of lines. You can try to cat sumstats.txt and see what happends.

By the way, > a_text_file.txt here means redirect the output to file a_text_file.txt.

zcat

zcat is similar to cat, but can only applied to compressed files.

cat and zcat a gzipped text file

$ gzip a_text_file.txt 
$ cat a_text_file.txt.gz                                                         TGba_text_file.    txtя
@ȱ»O𻀙v؂𧢩¼򀳠bq}󑢤\¤n٢ª򠀬n»ڡǭ
                          w5J_½𳘧P߉=ÿK
(֣԰§ҤŶaކ                              ¬M­R󽒊m³þe¸¤¼׍Sd￱߲들ª­v
       婁                                                                                                               resize: unknown character, exiting.

$ zcat a_text_file.txt.gz 
total 32M
drwxr-x---  2 he staff 4.0K Apr  2 00:37 .
drwxr-x--- 29 he staff 4.0K Apr  1 22:20 ..
-rw-r-----  1 he staff    0 Apr  2 00:37 a_text_file.txt
-rw-r-----  1 he staff 5.0K Apr  1 22:20 README.md
-rw-r-----  1 he staff  32M Mar 30 18:17 sumstats.txt

gzcat

Use gzcat instead of zcat if your device is running MacOS.

head: Print the first 10 lines.

-n: option to change the number of lines.

Check the first 10 lines and only the first line of the file sumstats.txt

$ head sumstats.txt 
CHROM   POS ID  REF ALT A1  TEST    OBS_CT  OR  LOG(OR)_SE  Z_STAT  P   ERRCODE
1   319 17  2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.04326 0.0495816   0.854176    0.393008    .
1   319 22  1   2   2   ADD 10000   1.03347 0.0493972   0.666451    0.505123    .
1   418 23  1   2   2   ADD 10000   1.02668 0.0498185   0.528492    0.597158    .
1   537 30  1   2   2   ADD 10000   1.01341 0.0498496   0.267238    0.789286    .
1   546 31  2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.02051 0.0336786   0.60284 0.546615    .
1   575 33  2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.09795 0.0818305   1.14199 0.25346 .
1   752 44  2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.02038 0.0494069   0.408395    0.682984    .
1   913 50  2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.07852 0.0493585   1.53144 0.12566 .
1   1356    77  2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.947521    0.0339805   -1.5864 0.112649    .

$ head -n 1 sumstats.txt 
CHROM   POS ID  REF ALT A1  TEST    OBS_CT  OR  LOG(OR)_SE  Z_STAT  P   ERRCODE

tail

Similar to head, you can use tail ro check the last 10 lines. -n works in the same way.

Check the last 10 lines of the file sumstats.txt

$ tail sumstats.txt 
22  99996057    9959945 2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.03234 0.0335547   0.948413    0.342919.
22  99996465    9959971 2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.04755 0.0337187   1.37769 0.1683  .
22  99997041    9960013 2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.01942 0.0937548   0.205195    0.837419.
22  99997608    9960051 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.969928    0.0397711   -0.767722   0.    442652    .
22  99997629    9960055 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.986949    0.0395305   -0.332315   0.    739652    .
22  99997742    9960061 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.990829    0.0396614   -0.232298   0.    816307    .
22  99998121    9960086 2   1   1   ADD 10000   1.04448 0.0335879   1.29555 0.19513 .
22  99998455    9960106 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.880953    0.152754    -0.829771   0.    406668    .
22  99999208    9960146 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.944604    0.065187    -0.874248   0.    381983    .
22  99999382    9960164 2   1   1   ADD 10000   0.970509    0.033978    -0.881014   0.37831 .

wc

wc: short for word count, which count the lines, words, and characters in a file.

For example,

Count the lines, words, and characters in sumstats.txt

$ wc sumstats.txt 
  445933  5797129 32790417 sumstats.txt
This means that sumstats.txt has 445933 lines, 5797129 words, and 32790417 characters.

Edit files

Vim is a handy text editor in command line.

vim README.md

Vim - text editor

image

Press i to enter insert mode, and then you can edit the file as you want. When finished, just pres Esc to escape insert mode, and then press shift + : , then wq to quit and also save the file.

Vim is a little bit hard to learn for beginners, but when you get familiar with it, it will be a mighty and convenient tool. For more detailed tutorials on Vim, you can check: https://github.com/iggredible/Learn-Vim

Other common command line text editors

Permission

The permissions of a file or directory are represented as a 10-character string (1+3+3+3) :

For example, this represents a directory(the initial d) which is readable, writable and executable for the owner(the first 3: rwx), users in the same group(the 3 characters in the middle: rwx) and others (last 3 characters: rwx).

drwxrwxrwx

-> d (directory or file) rwx (permissions for owner) rwx (permissions for users in the same group) rwx (permissions for other users)

Notation Description
r readable
w writable
x executable
d directory
- file

Command for checking the permissions of files in the current directory: ls -l

Command for changing permissions: chmod, chown, chgrp

Syntax: 

chmod [3-digit Binary notation] [path]

Number notation Permission 3-digit Binary notation
7 rwx 111
6 rw- 110
5 r-x 101
4 r-- 100
3 -wx 011
2 -w- 010
1 --x 001
0 --- 000

Change the permissions of the file README.md to 660

# there is a readme file in the directory, and its permissions are -rw-r----- 
$ ls -lh
total 4.0K
-rw-r----- 1 he staff 2.1K Feb 24 01:16 README.md

# let's change the permissions to 660, which is a numeric notation of -rw-rw---- based on the     table above
$ chmod 660 README.md 

# chack again, and it was changed.
$ ls -lh
total 4.0K
-rw-rw---- 1 he staff 2.1K Feb 24 01:16 README.md

Note

These commands are very important because we use genome data, which could raise severe ethical and privacy issues if there is data leak.

Warning

Please always be cautious when handling human genomic data.

Others

There are a group of very handy and flexible commands which will greatly improve your efficiency. These include | , >, >>,*,.,..,~,and -.

| (pipe)

Pipe basically is used to pass the output of the previous command to the next command as input, instead of printing is in terminal. Using pipe you can do very complicated manipulations of the files.

An example of Pipe

cat sumstats.txt | sort | uniq | wc
This means (1) print sumstats, (2) sort the output, (3) then keep the unique lines and finally (4) count the lines and words.

>

> redirects output to a new file (if the file already exist, it will be overwritten)

Redirects the output of cat sumstats.txt | sort | uniq | wc to count.txt

cat sumstats.txt | sort | uniq | wc > count.txt

>>

>> redirects output to a file by appending to the end of the file (if the file already exist, it will not be overwritten)

Redirects the output of cat sumstats.txt | sort | uniq | wc to count.txt by appending

cat sumstats.txt | sort | uniq | wc >> count.txt

Other useful commands include :

Command Description Example Code Example code meaning
* represent zero or more characters - -
? represent a single character - -
. the current directory - -
.. the parent directory of the current directory. cd .. change to the parent directory of the current directory
~ the home directory cd ~ change to the curent user's home directory
- the last directory you are working in. cd - change to the last directory you are working in.

Wildcards

The asterisk * and the question mark ? are called wildcard characters or wildcards in Linux, which are special symbols that can represent other normal characters. Wildcards are especially useful when handling multiple files with similar pattern in their names.

Warning

Be extremely careful when you use rm and *. It is disastrous when you mistakenly type rm *

Bash scripts

If you have a lot of commands to run, or if you want to automate some complex manipulations, bash scripts are a good way to address this issue.

We can use vim to create a bash script called hello.sh

A simple example of bash scripts:

Example

hello.sh
#!/bin/bash
echo "Hello, world1"
echo "Hello, world2"

#! is called shebang, which tells the system which interpreter to use to excute the shell script.

Then use chmod to give it permission to execute.

chmod +x hello.sh

Now we can run the srcipt by ./hello.sh:

./hello.sh
"Hello, world1" 
"Hello, world2"

Advanced text editing

(optional: awk, sed, cut, sort, join, uniq)

  • cut : cutting out columns from files.
  • sort: sorting the lines of a file.
  • uniq: filter the duplicated lines in a file.
  • join: join two tabular files based on specified keys.

Advanced commands:

Git and Github

Git is a powerful version control software and github is a platform where you can share your codes.

Currently you just need to learn git clone, which simply downloads an existing repository.

git clone https://github.com/Cloufield/GWASTutorial.git

You can also check here for more information.

Quote

Download

We can use wget [option] [url] command to download files to local machine.

-O option specify the file name you want to change for the downloaded file.

Use wget to download the hg19 reference genome from UCSC

# Download hg19 reference genome from UCSC
wget https://hgdownload.soe.ucsc.edu/goldenPath/hg19/bigZips/hg19.fa.gz

# Download hg19 reference genome from UCSC and rename it to  my_refgenome.fa.gz
wget -O my_refgenome.fa.gz https://hgdownload.soe.ucsc.edu/goldenPath/hg19/bigZips/hg19.fa.gz

Exercise

The questions are generated by Microsoft Bing!

What is the command to list all files and directories in your current working directory?

  • A) ls
  • B) cd
  • C) pwd
  • D) mkdir

What is the command to create a new directory named “test”?

  • A) cd test
  • B) pwd test
  • C) mkdir test
  • D) ls test

What is the command to copy a file named “data.txt” from your current working directory to another directory named “backup”?

  • A) cp data.txt backup/
  • B) mv data.txt backup/
  • C) rm data.txt backup/
  • D) cat data.txt backup/

What is the command to display the first 10 lines of a file named “results.csv”?

  • A) head results.csv
  • B) tail results.csv
  • C) less results.csv
  • D) more results.csv

What is the command to count the number of lines, words, and characters in a file named “report.txt”?

  • A) wc report.txt
  • B) count report.txt
  • C) size report.txt
  • D) stat report.txt

What is the command to search for a pattern in a file named “log.txt” and print only the matching lines?

  • A) grep pattern log.txt
  • B) find pattern log.txt
  • C) locate pattern log.txt
  • D) search pattern log.txt

What is the command to sort the contents of a file named “names.txt” in alphabetical order and save the output to a new file named “sorted_names.txt”?

  • A) sort names.txt > sorted_names.txt
  • B) sort names.txt < sorted_names.txt
  • C) sort names.txt >> sorted_names.txt
  • D) sort names.txt << sorted_names.txt

What is the command to display the difference between two files named “old_version.py” and “new_version.py”?

  • A) diff old_version.py new_version.py
  • B) cmp old_version.py new_version.py
  • C) diffy old_version.py new_version.py
  • D) compare old_version.py new_version.py

What is the command to change the permissions of a file named “script.sh” to make it executable by everyone?

  • A) chmod +x script.sh
  • B) chmod 777 script.sh
  • C) chmod ugo+x script.sh
  • D) All of the above

What is the command to run a program named “program.exe” in the background and redirect its output to a file named “output.log”?

  • A) program.exe & > output.log
  • B) program.exe > output.log &
  • C) program.exe < output.log &
  • D) program.exe & < output.log